Literacy
and Grammar Guides and Rules
DEFINITION
FOR WRITING CONVENTIONS
WRITING CONVENTIONS include spelling,
punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and paragraphing. The writer should use conventions to enhance
the readability of the paper. Spelling
should be correct on all words.
Punctuation should be smooth and guide the reader through the
paper. Capitalization should be used
correctly. Paragraphing should
reinforce organization. The writer may
manipulate conventions for effect.
DESCRIPTORS
FOR WRITING CONVENTIONS
The following list of descriptors is
adapted from the Six Trait Analytic Writing Model rubrics for writing
conventions and is a reference for how writers enhance their writing with
correct conventions.
A writer should do the following:
! Reinforce the organization with good
paragraphing
! Use grammar that contributes to clarity
and style
! Guide the reader through the paper with
correct punctuation
! Use correct spelling, even on difficult
words
! Use capitalization correctly
! Enhance the readability of the paper
with conventions
! Provide a long enough piece of writing
to show a wide range of skills
! Proofread and edit the paper
! Make sure any errors are intentional
for stylistic effect
1) Capitalize the pronoun “I”
! Example: Jennifer and I went to the
movies yesterday.
2) Capitalize the first letter of the
first word of each sentence.
! Example: Learning to capitalize
correctly will improve your writing.
3) Capitalize the first letter of names of
people, organizations, and places.
! Example: Juan went on a trip to Tokyo,
Japan for his company,
General
Motors Corporation.
4) Capitalize the first letter of
adjectives that are made from the names of people and places.
! Example: I like Mexican food.
5) Capitalize initials
! Example: My brother’s favorite author
is H.G. Wells.
6)
Capitalize the first letter of directions only when they are
used to designate actual places, not when they point in a direction.
! When we visited the Southwest, we
actually had to drive north.
7) Capitalize the first letter of the
names of months and the days of the week.
! Example: My birthday will be on a
Friday next June.
8) Capitalize the official title of a person
(including abbreviations), but only when you use it with the person’s name.
! Example: Did Clarissa recommend Dr.
Montoya to you?
9) Capitalize words used as names or parts
of names.
! Example: Did Uncle George call Mom to
tell her Grandmother is with Dad?
10) Capitalize the first letter of important
words in a title of a book, magazine, story, essay, etc.
! Example: I enjoyed Mark’s essay, “The
Truth About Being a Good Student.”
11) Capitalize historical events and
documents.
! Example: The Emancipation Proclamation
was issued during the Civil War.
12) Capitalize the name of languages, races,
nationalities, and religions.
! Example: I learned in Spanish class
that Latinos are predominately Catholic.
13) Capitalize acronyms. (An acronym is a word formed by the first,
or first few, letters of words in a long name of an organization.)
! Example: CARE is the Cooperative for
American Relief Everywhere.
14) Capitalize initialisms. (An initialism is similar to an acronym, but
a word is not formed from the letters.)
! Example: The Central Intelligence
Agency is simply known as the CIA.
PUNCTUATION RULES
PERIOD
1. Use
a period at the end of a sentence.
! Example: I enjoyed the movie.
2. Use a period after an initial.
! Example: M.E. Kerr is a wonderful
author.
3. Use a period after an abbreviation.
! Example: We welcomed Mrs. Simmons to
our team.
4. Use a period as a decimal point.
! Example: The workers received a 2.1
percent raise.
5. Use a period to separate dollars and
cents.
! Example: the book cost $4.95.
6. Use a period after each number in a
list printed vertically.
! Example: For the example, look at the
lists on this page.
EXCLAMATION
POINT
1. Use an exclamation point at the end of
sentence, phrase, or word to indicate strong emotion.
(Never
use more than one exclamation point.)
! Example: Wow! I never thought Mom would let us go to the concert!
! Unacceptable: Wow!! I never though Mom would let us go to the
concert!!!!!!
QUESTION
MARK
1. Use
a question mark at the end of a question.
! Example: Did Steven go with you?
2. Use a question mark at the end of a
declarative statement that you want to emphasize as not believing the
statement.
! She’s our new teacher?
3. Use a question mark with parentheses to
indicate that you are not sure of a spelling or other fact.
! I have to visit an orthopeadic (?)
Doctor next week.
COMMA
1.
Use a comma after each item in a
series of at least three items. (It has
become acceptable to omit the comma before the conjunction in a series. However, it is important to remain
consistent.)
! Example: I still need to take a test,
write an essay, and check out a book.
! Example: I dislike spinach, broccoli,
and cauliflower.
! Example: I dislike spinach, broccoli
and cauliflower.
2. Use commas after the street address and
city in an address. (Do not use a comma
after the state.)
! Example: The address is 1234 Apple
street, Midtown, Kansas 98765.
3. Use a comma after the day and the year
in a date. (No commas are used in dates
when using the MLA style.)
! Example: Connie’s birthday is February
20, 1965.
! MLA version: Connie’s birthday is 20
February 1965.
4. Use a comma to clarify large
numbers. Counting from right to left, a
comma is needed after every 3 digits.
This rule does not apply to years, where no commas are used at all.
! Example: In 1998 the population of
Claremont was 23,899.
5. Use a comma to set off an interruption
in the main thought of a sentence.
! Example: Rosa, of course, will bring
her folding chairs.
6. Use a comma to separate two or more
adjectives that equally modify the same noun. (If you aren’t sure whether to
use a comma to separate the adjectives or not, say the sentence with the word “and”
in place of the comma. If it makes
sense, then use the comma.)
! Example: Jill was having problems with
the unruly, disruptive children.
7. Use a comma after a dependent clause
that begins a sentence. (Never use a
comma before a dependent clause at the end of a sentence.)
! Example: If Mr. Wilson complains, we’ll
invite him for a snack.
! Example: We’ll invite Mr. Wilson for a
snack if he complains.
8. Use a comma before the conjunction in a
compound sentence. However, if the two independent
clauses are very short, you do not need the comma.
! Example: We had a lot of fun, so I’ll
have another party soon.
! Example: She spoke and I took notes.
9. When quoting, put a comma to the left of a quotation mark that does not
already have a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point. (It is much easier to remember this rule
than to worry about “inside” and “outside.”)
! Example: Ariel said, “I knew you would
win the contest.”
10. Use a comma after a mild interjection,
such as oh or well.
! Example: Oh, the test was not that
difficult.
11. Use a comma after a noun of direct
address.
! Example: Kodi, didn’t I ask you to
clean your room?
12. Use a comma after the greeting in a
personal letter,
! Example: Dear Aunt Sheila,
13. Use
a comma after the closing of a letter.
! Example: Sincerely,
14. Use a comma to indicate where a pause is
necessary in order to avoid confusion (Sometimes rewriting the sentence is a
better choice.)
! Example: After Kelly, Jennifer gets a
turn.
! Example: Maria came in, in quite a
hurry.
15. Use a comma after an appositive. (An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that
gives additional information about the noun that it follows. Do not use a comma after a restrictive
appositive, which is one that cannot be removed from the sentence without
changing the meaning of the sentence.)
! Example: Wesley, my brother, is an
optician.
16. Use a comma to set off the abbreviation etc.
! Example: I went to the store to get
napkins, plates, cups, forks, etc.
SEMICOLON
1. Use a semicolon to join two independent
clauses. (This eliminates the need for
a comma and a conjunction.)
! Example: Casey read a book; then he did
a book report.
2. Use a semicolon to separate items in a
series when those items contain punctuation such as a comma.
! Example: We went on field trips to
Topeka, Kansas; Freedom, Oklahoma; Amarillo, Texas.
COLON
1. Use a colon between numerals indicating
hours and minutes.
! Example: School starts at 8:05 a.m.
2. Use a colon to introduce a list that
appears after an independent clause.
(Introductory words such as following
go somewhere before the colon to help introduce the list.)
! Example: You need the following items
for class: pencil, pens, paper, white out, and glue.
3. When mentioning a volume number and
page number, use a colon between the two items.
! Example: You will find information
about Mexico in Grolier Encyclopedia 17:245.
4. Use a colon after the greeting of a
business letter.
! Example: Dear Sir:
5. Use a colon between the title and
subtitle of a book.
! Example: Reading Strategies That Work:
Teaching Your Students to Become Better Readers is an excellent source.
6. Use a colon between the chapter and
verse numbers for parts of the Bible.
! Example: Please read Genesis 1:3.
APOSTROPHE
1. Use an apostrophe in a contraction to
show where letters have been omitted, or left out.
! Example: I don’t think I can do
this. (The apostrophe shows that the
letter “o” is left out)
2. Use an apostrophe when you leave out
the first two numbers of a year.
! She was in the class of ‘93.
3. For a singular noun that does not end
in -s, add ‘s.
! Example: The lady’s hands were
trembling.
4. For a one syllable singular noun that
ends with a possessive.
! Example: It is my boss’s birthday
today.
5. If
a singular noun has more than one syllable and ends in -s it is acceptable to use ‘s
OR to use only an apostrophe after the -s. (It is important to remain consistent.)
! Example: The metropolis’s citizens were
very friendly during our visit.
! Acceptable: The metropolis’ citizens
were very friendly during our visit.
6. To form the possessive of a singular
proper noun ending in -s, it is acceptable to add ‘s OR to add only an apostrophe.
(It is important to remain consistent.)
! Example: Mr. Ness’s classroom is very
inviting.
! Acceptable: Mr. Ness’ classroom is very
inviting.
7. If a plural
noun ends in -s, add an apostrophe
after the -s.
! Example: The ladies’ restroom was a
mess.
8. If a plural noun does not end with an -s, form the possessive by using an
apostrophe before an -s.
! Example: The mice’s tails were caught
in a trap.
9. For a compound noun, place the
possessive ending after the last word.
! Example: My mother-in-law’s car was in
the garage during the hail storm (singular)
! Example: My brothers-in-law’s cars were
damaged in the hail storm. (plural)
10. To show possession of the same object by
more than one noun, only make the last noun in the series possessive.
! Example: I’m looking for Mrs. Garcia,
Mrs. Lee, and Miss Carter’s office.
(They all
share the same office.)
! Example: I’m looking for Mrs. Garcia’s,
Mrs. Lee’s, and Miss Carter’s office.
(Each
person has her own office.)
11. Use an apostrophe to form the plural of a
number, letter, sign, or word used as a word.
! Example: Check to see that you used the
+’s and -‘s correctly.
!
QUOTATION
MARKS
1. Use quotation marks before and after a
direct quote. (Any punctuation used
goes to the left of a quotation
mark, unless it is used to punctuate the whole sentence and not just the
quote.) If the speaker tag interrupts
the quoted material, then two sets of quotation marks are needed. However, do not put quotation marks around
the speaker tag.
! Example: “I think my leg is broken,” Jesse whimpered.
! Example: Did Mrs. Steele just say, “We are going to have a test
today”?
! Example: “I can’t move.” Maria
whispered, “I’m too scared.”
2. Put
quotation marks around the titles of short works, such as articles, songs,
short stories,
or
poems.
! Example: Have you heard the song “Love Me Tender,” by Elvis Presley?
3.
Place quotation marks around
words, letters, or symbols that are slang or being discussed or used in a
special way. (Underlining can be used
for the same purpose.)
! Example: I have a hard time spelling
“miscellaneous.”
! Example: I have a hard time spelling miscellaneous.
4. Use single quotation marks for
quotation marks within quotations.
! Example: “Have you read the poem, ‘The
Raven,’ by Edgar Alan Poe,” I asked Chris.
ELLIPSIS
1. Use an ellipsis to indicate a pause.
! Example: You mean . . . I . . . uh . .
. we have a test today?
2. Use an ellipsis to indicate omitted
words in a quotation.
! Example: “Then you’d blast off . . . on
screen, as if you were looking out . . . of a spaceship.”
3. If the ellipses comes at the end of
your sentence, you still need end punctuation, even if it is a period.
! Example: I listened carefully as the
teacher read Lincoln’s inaugural address.
“Four score and even years ago . . . .”
HYPHEN
1. Use a hyphen in compound numbers from
twenty-one to ninety-nine.
! Example: The final score was
seventy-eight to sixty-two.
2. Use a hyphen between the numbers in a
fraction.
! Example: I only used three-fourths of
the flour you gave me.
3. Use a hyphen to form some compound
words.
! Example: I just bought a
dot-matrix printer.
4. Use a hyphen to join a capital letter
to a word.
! Example: I had to have my arm X-rayed.
DASH
1. Use a pair of dashes to indicate a
sudden interruption in a sentence. (One
handwritten dash is twice as long as a hyphen.
One typewritten dash is one hyphen follows another.)
! Example: There is one thing–actually
several things–that I need to tell you.
2. Use a dash to attach an afterthought to
an already complete sentence.
! Example: Sarah bought a new pet
yesterday–a boa constrictor.
3. Use a dash after a series of introductory
elements.
! Example: Murder, armed robbery,
assault–he has a long list of felonies on his record.
PARENTHESES
Use a set of parentheses around a word
or phrase in a sentence that adds information or makes an idea more clear. (Punctuation is placed inside the
parentheses to entire sentence.)
! Example: Your essay (all nine pages of
it) is on my desk.
BRACKETS
Use
brackets around words of your own that you add to the words of someone you are
quoting.
! Example: The news anchor announced, “It
is my sad duty to inform our audience that we are now at war. [with Iraq].
UNDERLINING
(OR ITALICS)
1. It is more acceptable to use italics
when available.
2. Underline titles of long works such as
books, magazines, albums, movie, etc.
(Do
not underline end punctuation.)
! Example: We use The Language
Handbook to study grammar.
! Example: We use The Language Handbook to study grammar.
3. Underline foreign words which are not
commonly used in everyday English.
! Example: If you look closely, you’ll
see e pluribus unum on most U.S. currency.
! Example: If you look closely, you’ll
see e pluribus unum on most U.S.
currency.
4. Underline a word, number, or letter
which is being discussed or used in a special way.
(Quotation
marks can be used for the same purpose.)
! Example: Remember to dot every I
and cross every t.
Rating
of 5 (Strong):
The writer uses standard writing
conventions very well to make the paper easy to read. There are very few errors, and the reader hardly notices
them. Only light editing is required to
turn the writing into a final draft.
! The paragraphing is obvious and makes
the paper easy to read.
! The writer uses correct grammar that
makes it easy for the reader to understand what is written.
! Capitalization is correct, and
punctuation is smooth and helps the reader move from idea to idea without
thinking about it.
! Spelling is
correct, even on difficult words.
! The writer may make mistakes on purpose
for stylistic effect.
Rating
of 3 (Developing):
There are mistakes in conventions, but
the reader can figure out what is meant by reading some parts of the paper more
than once. Mistakes are not severe, but
are distracting. Some editing is
required to turn the paper into a final draft.
! Paragraphing is inconsistent. Paragraphs sometimes run together or begin
in the wrong places.
! End-of-sentence punctuation is usually
correct, but punctuation within sentences may be incorrect or missing.
! Grammar mistakes are not severe enough
to cause the reader not to understand the meaning.
! Capitalization is generally correct.
! Spelling is mostly correct.
Rating
of 1 (Beginning):
Numerous errors in conventions distract
the reader and make the paper difficult to read. The errors are so severe that they cause the reader to have
difficulty in understanding the message.
Much editing is required to turn the paper into a final draft.
! Paragraphing may be irregular, absent, or
too frequent. It makes the
organizational structure of the paper difficult to follow.
! Basic punctuation and capitalization
are left out or incorrect.
! Grammar errors are very noticeable
causing the reader to have trouble with the meaning.
! Spelling errors are frequent, even on
common words.
Rating
of 5 (Strong):
The paper has an easy flow and
rhythm. It is easy to read aloud. The writing sounds natural–the way someone
might talk. The sentences have
different beginnings, lengths, and structures.
! The writing sounds natural, with one
sentence flowing effortlessly into the next.
! Varied sentence beginnings guide the
reader readily from one sentence to the next.
! Variation in sentence structure and
length adds interest to the text.
! Fragments, if used at all, work
well. Most sentences are complete.
! Dialogue, if used, sounds like people
talking.
Rating
of 3 (Developing):
The text moves along efficiently, but
lacks rhythm and grace. It may sound technical
or mechanical instead of pleasant and musical.
! Simple sentences are okay, but compound
sentences and complex sentences are not.
! The sentences make sense, but do not
seem skillfully written.
! There is some variety in sentence
beginnings, length, and structure.
! Fragments sometimes work, but mostly do
not work; they seem to be the result of error.
! The reader has to hunt for clues to see
how one sentence should flow into the next.
! Some parts of the text sound good when
read aloud, others are choppy and sound funny when read aloud.
Rating
of 1 (Beginning):
The paper is difficult to follow or
read aloud. Most sentences are
incomplete or run together.
! The sentences do not sound
natural. The text is not at all like a
person would talk.
! The reader may have to pause or read
the sentences again to understand what is meant.
! There is no variety in sentence
beginnings, length, or structure.
! There are several fragments or most of
the sentences run together with no connections.
! The reader cannot make sense of the
connections between sentences.
Hint: Have
students read their paper aloud to themselves or another person to facilitate
sentence fluency.
The
Basics
KISS
- Keep It Simple and Short
! Remove redundant words and phrases from
sentences.
! Do not repeat yourself.
! Avoid colorful language and objectives.
Lead
the Reader
! Direct the
reader through your text using subtle or not-so subtle guides.
! Paragraphs should “flow” together in
text.
! A paragraph should have an opening
sentence representative of its general contents and often have a closing
sentence to summarize the paragraph discussion.
! Organize your presentation into
sections such as introduction, motivation, background, topic related sections,
and conclusion.
! Try to avoid directly referring to the
reader such as “Let us examine ...” or “As you will see ...”
Be
Intelligent but not Too Smart
! Use more
technical and descriptive words whenever appropriate, but do not use a
thesaurus just to look “smarter”.
Use
Bold and Italics Productively
! Bold and italics are intended to draw a
readers attention, so do not abuse them.
! Use bold/italics for definitions or
important words in text. Example: “An object consists of attributes and methods.”
! Underline is rarely used.
Sources:
1. Kim’s Korner for Teacher Talk -
www.kimskorner4teachertalk.com
2. Technical Writing Tips -
www.cs.uiowa.edu/~rlawrenc/teaching/writingTips.html